Literary Precedents
The literary history of Arthur is a complicated one. While the sources are obscure, the English tradition begins in 1136 with Geoffrey of Monmouth's The History of the Kings of Britain. Arthur becomes ruler of the Western world in Monmouth's text, a hero among the men and women of Britain at a time when they needed one. Although his work was met with some skepticism at the time of its publication, in general it was believed to be true and scholars once used it as their basis for an account of the early history of Britain.
In 1155, Wace, a Norman clerk who followed Monmouth's work closely, produced Roman de Brut. In this book, Wace adds a detail familiar to modern readers of Arthu rian Legend—the Round Table. His work was translated into English by a Worcestershire priest, Laymon. Laymon was proBritish and anti-Saxon. As a result of his Christian faith, he identified strongly with the British who represented Christianity in their fight to suppress the heathen Saxons.
Arthur reached his greatest fame when early twelfth- and thirteenth-century French writers began to show an interest in his story. Around 1179, Cretien de Troyes wrote Lancelot, or The Knight of the Cart and Yvain, or The Knight with the Lion. It is in The Knight of the Cart that Cretien introduces, for the first time, the idea of courtly love. In this tale, Lancelot is rebuked by Gwenivere when he hesitates to ride in an executioner's cart in order to rescue her from the evil Malagant.
According to the rules of courtly love, the lover must be completely submissive to the lady and unconditionally obedient. Although Lancelot rides in the cart to complete the rescue, he is nonetheless rebuked for shaming himself by arriving in a cart. Full of adventures, marvels, and magic, the story centers on the important motif of Lancelot as lover and rescuer which has marked and followed his character to the present day. As well, Cretien's work set a tradition for Gwenivere's character as central female figure in Arthurian legend. However, his stories are male-centered, as are Malory's and other early works; they revolve around the activities of men.
Between 1370 and 1390, an unknown English poet produced Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. The story hinges on two motifs: the beheading game and temptation, both Celtic in origin. Dean notes that, "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is not the usual romance poem in which a knight follows a quest in alien lands but rather is a testpoem designed to teach us something about chivalry and human nature through the trials that the hero experiences." hi addition to the fact that this poem is brilliant in poetic form and content, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight contributed two important things to the legend as it is known today: first, Gawain, who was introduced as a character in Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain, became an important figure in Arthurian legend known for his honor and strength; second, the "Gawain poet" reinforced the notion of temptation which permeates the tradition of Arthuriana. Temptation from sin of all sorts (mainly Christian) has become a motif strongly linked with almost every version of the Arthur story.
Most complete contemporary versions of Arthuriana have their roots in the collection of stories or "novel" written by Thomas Malory in 1460. While different versions foreground distinct issues and place emphasis on varying aspects of the legend, they also rely heavily on Malory and the earlier works by Cretien de Troyes, Wace, Laymon, Geoffrey of Monmouth, and others for "historical" background and events within the story.
Malory's version of the legend focuses heavily on male activity with a marked Christian subplot. His story is primarily concerned with Arthur and the knights of the Round Table. Thus, the plots in each "tale" throughout the "novel" center around the men. Among this male activity, camaraderie, loyalty among knights, kinship, honor, battle, and a strong Christian motif can be found in Malory's work. He also changes Lancelot's character. Previously he was known primarily for his role as Gwenivere's lover; in Malory, Lancelot is a military master and first knight of the Round Table. Malory's priority is clearly to tell a story about what he deems the most important aspect of Arthur and his court—the men. Thus, the most detailed accounts found throughout the text focus on battles, preand postwar activity, and quests.
For a time after Malory, interest in Arthur's story fades. In fact, with the exception of Edmund Spencer's The Faerie Queene, there is no major Renaissance work produced on Arthurian material.
Although the story of Arthur lost appeal for almost four hundred years, it was revived in the Victorian period when Alfred Lord Tennyson produced Idylls of the King.
In The Making of Victorian Sexuality, Michael Mason argues that "Victorian middle-class wives ... suffered an actual deprivation of sexual pleasure because of the moralistic ignorance about women's sexual responses."
While Mason questions the moralism of the period, he maintains that behavior is closely tied with belief systems and, further, that although the "professed moralism of the period was actually only uttered by a minority of people," it was these people who "commanded the organs of opinion." Consequently, there is a strong Christian thread that follows all twelve of Tennyson's poems and a clear lack of sympathy for the female characters within Idylls of the King.
Arthur is the absolute Utopian hero who does constant battle with sin, including temptations of the flesh. Unlike earlier authors, Tennyson had no sympathy for Lancelot and Gwenivere, and so he casts them as weak characters. Sin and temptation are major motifs of Idylls of the King; Arthur misjudges both Lancelot and Gwenivere, whose adultery eventually brings down Camelot. Tennyson uses the legend as a vehicle to reflect the values and concerns of the period. Thus, like other versions of the Arthur story, Tennyson's women of Camelot are morally responsible for the fall of the kingdom.
In 1155, Wace, a Norman clerk who followed Monmouth's work closely, produced Roman de Brut. In this book, Wace adds a detail familiar to modern readers of Arthu rian Legend—the Round Table. His work was translated into English by a Worcestershire priest, Laymon. Laymon was proBritish and anti-Saxon. As a result of his Christian faith, he identified strongly with the British who represented Christianity in their fight to suppress the heathen Saxons.
Arthur reached his greatest fame when early twelfth- and thirteenth-century French writers began to show an interest in his story. Around 1179, Cretien de Troyes wrote Lancelot, or The Knight of the Cart and Yvain, or The Knight with the Lion. It is in The Knight of the Cart that Cretien introduces, for the first time, the idea of courtly love. In this tale, Lancelot is rebuked by Gwenivere when he hesitates to ride in an executioner's cart in order to rescue her from the evil Malagant.
According to the rules of courtly love, the lover must be completely submissive to the lady and unconditionally obedient. Although Lancelot rides in the cart to complete the rescue, he is nonetheless rebuked for shaming himself by arriving in a cart. Full of adventures, marvels, and magic, the story centers on the important motif of Lancelot as lover and rescuer which has marked and followed his character to the present day. As well, Cretien's work set a tradition for Gwenivere's character as central female figure in Arthurian legend. However, his stories are male-centered, as are Malory's and other early works; they revolve around the activities of men.
Between 1370 and 1390, an unknown English poet produced Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. The story hinges on two motifs: the beheading game and temptation, both Celtic in origin. Dean notes that, "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is not the usual romance poem in which a knight follows a quest in alien lands but rather is a testpoem designed to teach us something about chivalry and human nature through the trials that the hero experiences." hi addition to the fact that this poem is brilliant in poetic form and content, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight contributed two important things to the legend as it is known today: first, Gawain, who was introduced as a character in Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain, became an important figure in Arthurian legend known for his honor and strength; second, the "Gawain poet" reinforced the notion of temptation which permeates the tradition of Arthuriana. Temptation from sin of all sorts (mainly Christian) has become a motif strongly linked with almost every version of the Arthur story.
Most complete contemporary versions of Arthuriana have their roots in the collection of stories or "novel" written by Thomas Malory in 1460. While different versions foreground distinct issues and place emphasis on varying aspects of the legend, they also rely heavily on Malory and the earlier works by Cretien de Troyes, Wace, Laymon, Geoffrey of Monmouth, and others for "historical" background and events within the story.
Malory's version of the legend focuses heavily on male activity with a marked Christian subplot. His story is primarily concerned with Arthur and the knights of the Round Table. Thus, the plots in each "tale" throughout the "novel" center around the men. Among this male activity, camaraderie, loyalty among knights, kinship, honor, battle, and a strong Christian motif can be found in Malory's work. He also changes Lancelot's character. Previously he was known primarily for his role as Gwenivere's lover; in Malory, Lancelot is a military master and first knight of the Round Table. Malory's priority is clearly to tell a story about what he deems the most important aspect of Arthur and his court—the men. Thus, the most detailed accounts found throughout the text focus on battles, preand postwar activity, and quests.
For a time after Malory, interest in Arthur's story fades. In fact, with the exception of Edmund Spencer's The Faerie Queene, there is no major Renaissance work produced on Arthurian material.
Although the story of Arthur lost appeal for almost four hundred years, it was revived in the Victorian period when Alfred Lord Tennyson produced Idylls of the King.
In The Making of Victorian Sexuality, Michael Mason argues that "Victorian middle-class wives ... suffered an actual deprivation of sexual pleasure because of the moralistic ignorance about women's sexual responses."
While Mason questions the moralism of the period, he maintains that behavior is closely tied with belief systems and, further, that although the "professed moralism of the period was actually only uttered by a minority of people," it was these people who "commanded the organs of opinion." Consequently, there is a strong Christian thread that follows all twelve of Tennyson's poems and a clear lack of sympathy for the female characters within Idylls of the King.
Arthur is the absolute Utopian hero who does constant battle with sin, including temptations of the flesh. Unlike earlier authors, Tennyson had no sympathy for Lancelot and Gwenivere, and so he casts them as weak characters. Sin and temptation are major motifs of Idylls of the King; Arthur misjudges both Lancelot and Gwenivere, whose adultery eventually brings down Camelot. Tennyson uses the legend as a vehicle to reflect the values and concerns of the period. Thus, like other versions of the Arthur story, Tennyson's women of Camelot are morally responsible for the fall of the kingdom.